The short version of visceral adiposity fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2025-11-21 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Clinical interest in tesamorelin arose from the need to address visceral adiposity in people living with HIV. Antiretroviral therapy improved survival but was associated in some patients with central fat accumulation, altered lipid profiles, and metabolic complications. This condition, often called HIV-associated lipodystrophy, involves excess visceral adipose tissue that is difficult to manage through diet and exercise alone. Investigators evaluated tesamorelin because GHRH analogs can stimulate growth hormone secretion and influence fat distribution without direct liposuction or invasive procedures.
A Phase 3 program led to regulatory approval in the United States in 2010 for reduction of excess visceral abdominal fat in adults with HIV and lipodystrophy. Subsequent studies examined effects on liver fat, muscle area, and metabolic markers, with mixed findings for some endpoints. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes and effects on mortality remain uncertain because most trials were relatively short and focused on imaging-based fat measurements. Use in populations without HIV has been studied experimentally but is not part of the approved indication.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone, a peptide hormone produced by the hypothalamus. The molecule retains the 44-amino-acid sequence of human GHRH and carries a trans-3-hexenoyl modification at its N-terminus. This modification increases resistance to enzymatic degradation and extends the peptide's functional stability relative to native GHRH. The compound is supplied as a lyophilized powder for reconstitution and subcutaneous administration in clinical settings. Its development code was TH9507, and it belongs to the GHRH analog class. It is not a growth hormone product; instead, it acts upstream to stimulate endogenous growth hormone release.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). Its sequence corresponds to the 44-amino-acid form of human GHRH with a trans-3-hexenoyl group attached to the N-terminal tyrosine. This modification slows enzymatic cleavage and extends the peptide's activity relative to the native hormone. The compound is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis and supplied as a lyophilized powder. Researchers classify it as a GHRH receptor agonist. Its structure places it in the same family as other growth hormone secretagogues that act on the pituitary.
Binding of tesamorelin to GHRH receptors on pituitary somatotroph cells triggers cyclic AMP signaling and the release of growth hormone into circulation. Because the peptide acts upstream of the growth hormone axis, its effects are partly mediated by hepatic insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) production. The pulsatile character of endogenous growth hormone secretion is preserved rather than replaced. Whether amplified signaling produces effects beyond those of native GHRH remains an area of ongoing investigation.
A documented effect of tesamorelin is a reduction in visceral adipose tissue in some study populations. Researchers have reported decreases in trunk fat measured by computed tomography alongside changes in lipid markers. The mechanism is thought to involve growth hormone-mediated lipolysis, though the precise contribution of direct versus indirect pathways is not fully resolved. Studies have generally examined defined groups over finite periods, so long-term outcomes are less well characterized. Findings have not been uniform across all trials.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular weight | Approximately 5,136 Da | Based on the 44-amino-acid peptide backbone and N-terminal modification. |
| Appearance | White to off-white lyophilized powder | Usually supplied in single-use vials for reconstitution. |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water; slightly soluble in some organic solvents | Peptide nature supports aqueous reconstitution. |
| Typical storage | 2–8 °C, protected from light | Refrigeration reduces degradation; avoid freezing unless specified. |
| Common analytical method | Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography | Used for identity, purity, and quantification. |
| Synonyms | Tesamorelin, TH9507, GHRH(1-44) analog | Generic descriptors; avoid proprietary names. |
tesamorelin 是一种人工合成的四十四肽，序列与内源性生长激素释放激素（GHRH）的 1-44 片段一致，区别在于 N 端加接了一个反式-3-己烯酰基。该修饰抑制二肽基肽酶 IV 的快速切割，从而延长分子在循环中的存留时间。作为肽类分子，它难以经胃肠道吸收，文献中讨论的均是注射途径。分类上通常把它归为 GHRH 类似物，以区别于生长激素本身。
作用位置在垂体前叶。tesamorelin 与 GHRH 受体结合后激活腺苷酸环化酶，升高细胞内 cAMP，再经蛋白激酶 A 通路促进生长激素的合成与释放。由于它作用于内源调控节点，生长激素仍以脉冲方式分泌，而不是被持续抬升到固定水平。生长激素随后在肝脏等组织诱导胰岛素样生长因子 1 产生，构成完整的生长激素轴响应。
研究背景集中在特定人群的体成分改变，尤其是与脂肪分布异常相关的内脏脂肪堆积。不同地区对它的监管状态与获批适应症并不一致，部分市场仅限特定诊断人群使用。在一般人群中的长期效应、与其他激素的相互作用以及停药后的维持情况仍属开放问题，现有数据不足以给出普遍结论。
Receptor-level activity begins when the peptide binds the GHRH receptor, a class B G-protein-coupled receptor found on pituitary somatotroph cells. Occupancy triggers Gs-mediated activation of adenylyl cyclase and a rise in intracellular cyclic AMP, which in turn promotes synthesis and pulsatile release of growth hormone. Because the compound acts upstream of the growth hormone axis rather than supplying hormone directly, its effect depends on intact pituitary function. Binding studies in cell culture and animal models have established this pathway; the detailed kinetics of receptor recycling in humans remain less well characterized.
Physicochemical behavior is dominated by the peptide backbone. The molecule is hydrophilic and carries a net positive charge near neutral pH, owing to several arginine and lysine residues. In solution it adopts a largely unstructured conformation, and aggregation is a known concern for peptide products of this size. Oxidation of methionine and deamidation of asparagine or glutamine residues are the principal chemical degradation routes. These liabilities shape how the material is formulated, handled, and analyzed, and they explain why lyophilized presentations are common in research settings.
Clinical study of tesamorelin has centered on adults with HIV-associated lipodystrophy, a condition in which abdominal fat accumulates while peripheral fat is lost. In controlled trials, treated participants showed reductions in visceral adipose tissue measured by imaging, alongside modest shifts in some lipid values. Effects on subcutaneous fat were smaller and less consistent across studies. Whether these changes translate into fewer cardiovascular events remains an open question, because the trials were not designed or powered to answer it.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide that acts as an analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone, a natural hypothalamic signal. Its sequence corresponds to the forty-four amino acid form of the human hormone, with a small acyl group attached near the amino terminus. That modification slows enzymatic breakdown and extends the time the peptide remains active in circulation. The compound was developed as a pharmacological way to raise endogenous growth hormone output rather than supplying the hormone directly.
After injection, the peptide binds receptors on somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary. Receptor activation raises intracellular cyclic AMP and triggers release of stored growth hormone into the bloodstream. Because the compound works through the body's own regulatory system, growth hormone pulses retain much of their normal feedback control. Repeated administration also raises insulin-like growth factor 1, a hormone produced mainly in the liver. Investigators treat that rise as a marker that the pituitary axis has been engaged.
== A == a-actinin Abl ABLIM Actin-Interacting MAPKKK Ssk2p ABP120 ABP140 Abp1p ABP280 (Filamin) ABP50 (EF-1a) Acan 125 (Carmil) ActA Actibind Actin Actinfilin Actinogelin Actin-regulating kinases Actin-Related Proteins Actobindin Actolinkin Actopaxin Actophorin Acumentin (= L-plastin) Adducin ADF/Cofilin Adseverin (scinderin) Afadin AFAP-110 Affixin Aginactin AIP1 Aldolase Angiogenin Anillin Annexins Aplyronine Archvillin (isoform of Supervillin) Arginine kinase Arp2/3 complex
==== Phenylethylamine ==== In general, phenylethylamine consists of an aromatic ring connected to an amine group which is 2 carbons away. Each type of phenylethylamine differs by the substitutions at the alpha and beta carbon position. When a methyl group is attached at the alpha position, the compound becomes amphetamines which has the ability to modulate the 5HT-2A serotonin receptors. Eventually, the activated receptors cause hallucinations. To ensure sufficient binding, the agonists must contain a primary amine, methoxy group and hydrophobic functional groups.
For elements that have one naturally occurring isotope (mononuclidic elements) or one dominant isotope, the difference between the atomic mass of the most common isotope, and the (standard) relative atomic mass or (standard) atomic weight will be nil, or small enough to not effect most calculations. For elements with more than one isotope in significant quantities, the mass of individual atoms will be different from an average across all the isotopes. For elements that have more than one common isotope, the numerical difference in relative atomic mass (atomic weight) from even the most common relative isotopic mass, can be half a mass unit or more (e.g. see the case of chlorine where atomic weight and standard atomic weight are about 35.45). The atomic mass (relative isotopic mass) of an uncommon isotope can differ from the relative atomic mass, atomic weight, or standard atomic weight, by several mass units. Relative isotopic masses are always close to whole-number values, but never (except in the case of carbon-12) exactly a whole number, for two reasons:
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The non-sterile form of Povidone iodine has a long history of intrinsic contamination with Burkholderia cepacia (a.k.a. Pseudomonas cepacia), and other opportunistic pathogens. Its ability to harbor such microbes further underscores the importance of using sterile products in any clinical setting. Since these bacteria are resistant to povidone iodine, statements that bacteria do not develop resistance to PVP-I, should be regarded with great caution: some bacteria are intrinsically resistant to a range of biocides including povidone-iodine.
== MrBayes software == MrBayes is a free software tool that performs Bayesian inference of phylogeny. It was originally written by John P. Huelsenbeck and Frederik Ronquist in 2001. As Bayesian methods increased in popularity, MrBayes became one of the software of choice for many molecular phylogeneticists. It is offered for Macintosh, Windows, and UNIX operating systems and it has a command-line interface. The program uses the standard MCMC algorithm as well as the Metropolis coupled MCMC variant. MrBayes reads aligned matrices of sequences (DNA or amino acids) in the standard NEXUS format. MrBayes uses MCMC to approximate the posterior probabilities of trees. The user can change assumptions of the substitution model, priors and the details of the MC³ analysis. It also allows the user to remove and add taxa and characters to the analysis. The program includes, among several nucleotide models, the most standard model of DNA substitution, the 4x4 also called JC69, which assumes that changes across nucleotides occur with equal probability. It also implements a number of 20x20 models of amino acid substitution, and codon models of DNA substitution. It offers different methods for relaxing the assumption of equal substitutions rates across nucleotide sites. MrBayes is also able to infer ancestral states accommodating uncertainty to the phylogenetic tree and model parameters. MrBayes 3 was a completely reorganized and restructured version of the original MrBayes. The main novelty was the ability of the software to accommodate heterogeneity of data sets.
==== Small interfering RNA (siRNA) ==== siRNAs are small RNA molecules that induce the sequence-specific degradation of other RNAs. siRNA treatment can function similar to traditional gene therapy by destroying the mRNA products of particular genes, and therefore preventing the expression of those genes. A 2012 study found that targeting TERC with an siRNA reduced telomerase activity by more than 50% and resulted in decreased viability of immortal cancer cells. Treatment with both the siRNA and radiation caused a greater reduction in tumor size in mice than treatment with radiation alone, suggesting that targeting telomerase could be a way to increase the efficacy of radiation in treating radiation-resistant tumors.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Boards of Directors == Bowman has served on the boards of directors of a number of companies in the areas of innovative technologies and the life sciences in addition to Dionex. From 1985 to 2007, Bowman served as a director of Molecular Devices Corporation, a supplier of bioanalytical measurement instruments. In 2006, he was appointed lead director of the board of Cell BioSciences, a privately held company engaged in protein research in the emerging area of nanoproteomics. He was appointed to the board of Solexa, Inc. in 2006. Solexa, which developed genome sequencing technology, was acquired in 2007 by Illumina, Inc., on whose board of directors Bowman now serves. Illumina develops tools for DNA, RNA, and protein analysis. A. Blaine Bowman joined Altera Corporation's board of directors as of July 30, 2012. Altera develops programmable logic devices.
=== Research === In 2013, Rocky De Nys and his team at JCU along with CSIRO performed in vitro tests on 30 tropical macroalgae species using an artificial cow stomach. Dried seaweed biomass was mixed in with low quality roughage and combined with rumen fluid. Temperature and pH were then maintained to accurately simulate the fermentation process that occurs within ruminant stomachs during digestion. The total volume and concentrations of produced gases were measured for each sample at 12-hour intervals over a 72-hour period. All seaweed species were shown to reduce methane emissions in some capacity with a 50% average reduction. However this required dosages as much as 20% of dietary intake. This was problematic as the high concentrations required would most likely cause digestion issues for livestock by reducing the volume of volatile fatty acids. Asparagopsis taxiformis proved the most effective with a measured methane reduction of 98.9%. Dictyota was the second most effective seaweed with a measured methane reduction of 92%. The results of this experiment provided sufficient evidence for CSIRO to select Asparagopsis as the main ingredient in livestock feed. In 2014, a patent on a method for reducing total gas production and/or methane production in ruminants (such as sheep and cattle) was registered by CSIRO, MLA and JCU. De Nys and Kinley expanded upon the experiment in 2015 with the goal of finding an ideal dosage of Asparagopsis. The aim was to maximise methane reduction without compromising enteric health.
== Atmospheric occurrence == In atmospheric sciences, O4 usually refers to the collision-induced complex arising from interactions between two O2 molecules. Also called O2-O2 dimers, these unstable dimers exhibit distinct collision-induced absorption (CIA) bands in the UV and visible ranges. Because molecular oxygen is well-mixed and the distribution is well known, the concentration of O2-O2 dimers is predictable and primarily dependent on air density. Since clouds change how light passes through the atmosphere, the strength of the O2-O2 absorption can be used to detect their presence and height. Therefore, satellite measurements of spectral radiance within the O2-O2 absorption bands can be used to calculate cloud properties such as cloud-top pressure and cloud fraction globally. The same absorption features, including bands at 360, 477 and 577 nm, are used to derive aerosol profiles in atmospheric optical spectroscopy, where the predictable distribution of O2 provides useful constraint in aerosol inversion techniques and radiative transfer models.
=== Aquaporin-Z === AqpZ, a homotetramer (tAqpZ) of four water-conducting channels that facilitate rapid water movements across the plasma membrane of E. coli, has been solved to 3.2 Å resolution (PDB: 2ABM). All channel-lining residues in the four monomeric channels are orientated in nearly identical positions except at the narrowest channel constriction, where the side chain of a conserved Arg-189 adopts two distinct orientations. In one of the four monomers, the guanidino group of Arg-189 points toward the periplasmic vestibule, opening up the constriction to accommodate the binding of a water molecule through a tridentate H-bond. In the other three monomers, the Arg-189 guanidino group bends over to form an H-bond with carbonyl oxygen of Thr-183 occluding the channel. Therefore, the tAqpZ structure has two different Arg-189 conformations which provide water permeation through the channel. Alternating between the two Arg-189 conformations disrupts continuous flow of water, thus regulating the open probability of the water pore. Further, the difference in Arg-189 displacements is correlated with a strong electron density found between the first transmembrane helices of two open channels, suggesting that the observed Arg-189 conformations are stabilized by asymmetrical subunit interactions in tAqpZ. Other resolved crystal structures for AqpZ include: PDB: 3NK5 , 3NKC, 1RC2.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic peptide analog of human growth hormone-releasing hormone. It is used clinically to reduce excess visceral abdominal fat in adults with HIV-associated lipodystrophy. It works by stimulating pituitary growth hormone release.
Pivotal trials enrolled adults with HIV and excess visceral abdominal fat, often in the context of antiretroviral therapy. Participants were assessed mainly by computed tomography for visceral adipose tissue. The approved indication remains specific to that population.
Long-term effects on cardiovascular events, mortality, and sustained fat distribution are not well established. Most trials measured changes over months rather than years. Open questions also include whether benefits persist after treatment stops.
It mirrors the 44-residue form of human growth hormone-releasing hormone. A hexenoyl group on the N-terminal tyrosine distinguishes it from the unmodified hormone. The change is intended to improve resistance to enzymatic breakdown.